CAJ #4: How does it all work?

Imagine being able to engineer your baby, to filter out all the possible medical problems, and perhaps enhance its intelligence, athleticism or looks. Genetic manipulation is indeed no longer just the stuff of science fiction. The rather colloquial term “Designer Baby”, which is mostly used by journalists and not by scientists, made its way from sci-fi movies and into the Oxford Dictionary, where it is defined as “a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected by genetic engineering combined with in-vitro fertilization to ensure the presence or absence of particular genes or characteristics.” In other words, creating a healthy baby with optional preselected, nonmedical qualities by using embryo screening technologies. But how are Designer Babies made? To explain this as efficient as possible, I am going to first give you a step-by-step explanation before delving more deeply into the theory and exact techniques behind this concept.

Before doctors can even begin to verify the genetic makeup of embryos, a number of steps have to be successfully completed beforehand. 

1. An embryo has to be created in a laboratory using in-vitro fertilization (IVF). As most of you may know, IVF, which was first performed in 1978, is the term used to describe the process in which a baby is conceived outside the mother’s womb. This method has been giving otherwise infertile couples a chance to have a baby of their own. For this, a woman’s eggs and a man’s sperm are being put together in test tubes to ensure fertilization. Zygotes (=the earliest developmental stage of an embryo) are formed. 
2. Within the first five days of the embryo’s creation, the zygotes reach the eight-cell stage. A single cell, called blastomere, is then carefully extracted to perform a process known as embryo biopsy. 
3. The cell is genetically analyzed /screened for genetic defects and chromosomal problems. 
4. After approximately 48 hours, after the results are available, healthy embryos (usually one or two) are implanted back into the woman’s uterus to develop. 

Short video to introduce the technology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LjL2XoNIO54 

This genetic screening of embryos that is done prior to implantation is performed through a procedure known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD), also referred to as preimplantation genetic screening or embryo screening. The innovative diagnosis technology involves the use of several genetic screening mechanisms, depending on the nature of the condition, such as Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH), Comparative Genomic Hybridization (CGH) or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to help identify genetic and chromosomal abnormalities in embryos and thereby virtually ensure healthy outcomes. So far, this procedure, in combination with IVF, has been used to:

• check for specific genetic disorders; mainly for monogenic disorders (=disorders caused by a single gene) such as sickle cell disease, spinal muscular atrophy and Huntington disease, and for chromosomal abnormalities such as a balanced translocation or Down Syndrome. There are also infertile couples who choose to conceive through IVF and PGD so as not to pass on their inherited condition.
• increase the chances of a successful pregnancy (mostly for women aged above 35) and reduce spontaneous miscarriages by selecting an embryo that seems to have the greatest potential. Technical drawbacks such as the invasiveness of this procedure as well as the maternal age factor can sometimes work against the desired effect of PGD. 
• to preselect the sex of the baby for medical (when there is a higher risk for either to inherit a specific disease, such as X-linked diseases) and non-medical reasons such as for “family balancing”. Some genetic diseases are indeed specific to one of the genders, such as the disorder hemophilia which usually affects boys. In case there is a history of hemophilia in the family, only female embryos are chosen. 
• specifically select an embryo for the presence of a particular disability, such as deafness, so that the child would share the same characteristics with its parents. 
• to treat a sick sibling by selecting embryos that have the same tissue types as the sibling to become a suitable donor. These children are called “savior siblings” as their foremost purpose is to provide an organ or cell transplant to their siblings who suffer from diseases, such as leukemia or Fanconi anemia, that are only treatable with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. For this, fertilized zygotes are tested for genetic compatibility and exclusion of genetic disorders. (See also the novel My Sister’s Keeper and its film adaptation)

PGD has first been successfully performed in 1989 and even though it is considered a highly controversial procedure, it became increasingly used during the 1990s to detect severe genetic diseases, such as Tay Sachs disease and Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy, and prevent them from being transferred to future generations. As it is only a recent development, this procedure does involve risks, such as premature birth, birth defects and developmental delays, but they have been rare so far. It is, however, a very invasive procedure that is prohibited in numerous countries, and one that is highly expensive. PGD could also be easily used to select traits like intelligence, height, looks and considerably more. The debate is over the ethical aspect and whether it should be legal to interfere with such characteristics when there is no medical reason to do so.

More on the technologies and the ethical side can be found in my next posts. Bye for now! ;-)

CAJ #3: Average Joe Narrative Text

… about how ‘Designer Babies’ might affect the life of an average Joe in 2039 

Friday, June 8, 2039: It is quite early in the morning but I am unusually wide awake. I cannot help but think if my husband and I should have been more open-minded and considered providing our child with the very best. Today’s basketball game at Benjamin Franklin High School, Philadelphia is the reason I am feeling slightly guilty. This game is going to determine whether or not my 18-year-old son Joe will be awarded a sports scholarship. He has been working extremely hard to get here and even though I know he is going to do the best he can, I doubt it will be good enough. That is, unless the couch who will be selecting one of the team players takes into consideration that two of those boys are genetically designed and that this is beyond unfair to the rest of the team. However, I do not think he will. I used to read a lot of articles about infertile couples going through IVF to be given the chance to conceive and others using the technology to be able to choose the baby’s sex. But it had never crossed my mind that the technology could become advanced to a point where couples can preselect athletic traits for their children. How is anyone supposed to even compete against such a ‘perfect’ person? Isn’t the world competitive enough as it is? I have seen those two boys play before and it is like they were born to play sports. It is almost eerie, although they seem to be just like any other of their classmates. Still, I hope Joe can somehow impress the couch as he is truly talented...for a ‘traditional’ boy.  

CAJ #2: Introduction to Designer Babies

Hey Everyone,

Welcome to my Current Affairs Journal! This project is certainly going to be a time-consuming challenge, but I hope you will find at least something interesting about it. I chose the highly controversial topic of Designer Babies for my Current Affairs Journal simply because I have always been particularly interested in the advanced technology that is used to “design” a baby outside the mother’s body.

So, as I started reading through some articles on the topic, I realized that even though most of us are somewhat familiar with this growing trend of designer babies, there is far more to it than we are aware of. Did you know that the concept of designer babies make the social as well as the scientific world fear for the future? Isn’t it supposed to be providing infertile couples with the chance of a healthy child, nothing more? How much effort is put into the procedure and how refined is the technology?

Nowadays, advanced reproductive technologies such as in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and a procedure known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) allow doctors to genetically modify embryos and thereby reduce the chances of genetic disorders, creating ‘Designer Babies’. While the idea of genetically engineered embryos was primarily intended for infertile couples to select embryos with healthy genes, it is now feared that it will not be long until people will eventually desire to preselect specified traits so that their children can turn out to be impeccable. Selecting the gender of a child is already possible due to the fact that only the X or Y chromosome needs to be identified; however, other traits are more difficult due to the amount of genetic material required. Recent studies showed that every single chromosome in an embryo can be scanned for genes involved in anything from Down Syndrome to lactose intolerance using a single microchip. The question arises: how advanced is this and what are the ethics behind this?

As mentioned in the beginning of the post, there is indeed a good deal to write about. I am looking forward to elaborating these questions in my following posts as well as to discussing the laws behind designer babies, the exact techniques and new developments.  

CAJ #1: Abstract for Designer Babies

This Current Affairs Journal aims to provide readers and myself an insight into the highly controversial topic of Designer Babies that makes the social world fear for the future. The focus lies on the exact techniques and new developments as well as on the laws and ethics behind this advanced technology that is used to “design” a baby outside the mother’s body. Further aspects might follow if they are considered relevant to the topic. The amount of information used to discuss and elaborate the subjects of the CAJ was collected, in from of articles and scientific papers, and summarized from the Internet. While working on the journal, it has become more evident that the reproductive technologies behind the concept of designer babies, such as preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and Computational Genomics, are far more advanced than we are aware of. It is believed that in the foreseeable future, wealthy parents will be able to preselect all sorts of qualities such as height and longevity to create a world with impeccable human beings. Due to this technological advancement, it can be predicted that more couples will be inclined to opt for conceiving this way and that this growing trend will undoubtedly influence the future.

How instant cameras work

Instant or Polaroid cameras are known for developing and printing out photographs within a few minutes after pressing the shutter release button. But how does this seemingly magical process work? The secret simply lies in the film. In order to understand the physics behind instant camera films, it is essential to first become familiar with the basics of traditional photographic film. Traditional film is composed of a plastic base laminated with light-sensitive silver compound. While there is only one layer of silver compound in black-and-white films, color films contain three layers, the first being sensitive to blue light, the second to green and the third to red. Once the film is exposed to light, the individual layers react to the colors, which cause the formation of metallic silver and a chemical reaction. The image created on the film would then have to be further developed, whereas instant cameras already comprise all the necessary chemicals in their films to develop the photographs right away. These chemicals are found within additional layers. A developer layer that contains dye elements is placed underneath each color layer, all of which are underneath the image, the timing and the acid layer and above a black base layer. These several layers are all parts of a chemical chain reaction that becomes induced by a substance called reagent (see images). 

The reagent consists of a mix of opacifiers, alkali, white pigment and other elements and is situated right between the light-sensitive layers and the image layer. As soon as a picture is captured and exposed to light, the film is sent out through a pair of rollers which push the reagent on the white, plastic borders onto the silver compound. This process triggers the four layers to react which in turn causes the silver compound layers to process and produce blue, green and red light patterns. An image is then created and as the photograph starts to appear, a chemical reaction can be viewed.

[327 words]

Instructional/Group - How To Make a Camera Lucida

 

The instructional text How To Make a Camera Lucida by Tim Hunkin does not provide the reader with useful instructions. Even though the author complies with a number of rules for instructional texts, such as making use of the imperative as well as writing short and simple sentences, the way the instructions are presented is neither clear nor logical. Looking at the sentences, it is extremely confusing for the reader to figure out the order of the steps since they are not numbered. Most of the steps are not written down explicitly but need to be figured out with the help of the images. This, however, is not the purpose of illustrations in instructional texts, instead they should be used to support the individual steps rather than to do the explaining. Moreover, there is no list of the materials needed to build the camera, there are no warnings or helpful tips, nor does the text say anything about the estimated time required. The usage of the camera lucida for drawing is mentioned within the instructions. However, it would have been helpful to know more about the camera from the start and an introduction should have been provided at the beginning. To put it in a nutshell, this piece of instruction clearly lacks organisation and logic.

[215 words]

Descriptive/group: The Migrant Mother

The photo of the Migrant Mother is a black and white photograph, taken in 1936, during the Great Depression, by Dorothea Lange. It depicts a woman in her 30s with her three children, one baby and two toddlers. Taking a closer look at her face, you notice that her hair is unkempt and her brows are knit together. Her wrinkled, sun-tanned face looks careworn and sombre and her hunched posture seems to express her wish to protect her children. The mother’s right hand is propped up against her chin, while her left hand is cradling the baby which is swaddled in a dirty blanket and appears to be sleeping. The children lean against their mother’s shoulder, facing away from the camera. Their dishevelled pageboy hairstyles and their slight bodies exacerbate the already present melancholic atmosphere. The family is poor as can be seen by their dirty and threadbare clothes. The overall impression is one of desperation and the quiet determination to carry on living.

[163 words]